Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 41. 0000004369 00000 n Pawley 2006). The misinterpretation of noncanonical sentences. For the modal verbs, the difference between the groups is, again, significant (chi2 = 27.15; p < 0.00001). Friederici (1982) used a sentence completion task to test production of prepositions with what she called “semantic” and “syntactic” functions3 in agrammatic and fluent aphasic speakers. Raising and transparency. Occurrences of hebben or modal verb forms that did not combine with another verb were counted as lexical verbs, as in ik heb een leuke familie ‘I have a nice family’; ik doe wat ik kan ‘I do what I can’. Glossa: a journal of general linguistics. 0000001102 00000 n 2010. the distinction between closed- and open-class words (e.g. There are aspects of grammar that have no obvious counterpart in the lexicon. 2011. The functional theory goes naturally with Construction Grammar’s conception of schematic constructions as signs (e.g. From: grammatical words in A Dictionary of Media and Communication ». 2009. As mentioned, Boye & Harder (2012: 21) suggest that the English preposition of is grammatical, whereas off is lexical (see Friederici 1982 and Bennis et al. In some parts of speech the prevailing component is the grammatical … As adjectives the difference between lexical and grammatical is that lexical is (linguistics) concerning the vocabulary, words or morphemes of a language while grammatical is (linguistics) acceptable as a … Accordingly, Boye & Harder (2012: 21) suggest that, for instance, the English preposition of is grammatical, whereas off is lexical. 1987. On the one hand, the view of grammatical items as rule-governed may be seen as nothing but a stipulation (albeit a theoretically motivated one). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2012.0020. 2004]. This review concentrates on two different language dimensions: lexical/semantic and grammatical. Bos, Laura. 276–293. What some languages can convey by means of the grammatical … 0000005169 00000 n All participants signed an informed consent according to the Declaration of Helsinki under a procedure approved by the Medical Ethics Committees of the relevant medical centers. 88–111. 3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030903474255. Grammar is defined as comprising items – including grammatical words as well as constructions (i.e. After a superficial scanning of (4), we know that the main point has to do with the lexical element King, always, hate, chase or/and stick and not with any of the grammatical items – if we know the conventions of English. Cinque, Guglielmo. However, both grammar and the lexicon comprise words. 0000001182 00000 n The retrieval and inflection of verbs in the spontaneous speech of fluent aphasic speakers. Bucharest Working Papers in Linguistics 13. Thirdly, as will be discussed below, words that belong to the same closed class are not always affected to a similar degree in agrammatism. (m = male, f = female; MPO = months post onset; CVA = cerebro Vascular Accident, TBI = traumatic brain injury). One criterion, following from the dependence property is that grammatical items cannot stand alone, whereas lexical items can. The other key is word contrasts, i.e. 2016). As mentioned earlier, epistemic modal verbs seem to be grammatical by the focus criterion, whereas at least some non-epistemic modal verbs seem to be lexical. Brain and Language 39. Systematic gaps and accidental gaps are not the same. Remarks on the organisation of languages with small, closed verb classes. A theoretically-based distinction between grammatical and lexical instances of Dutch modal verb forms and the verb form hebben was confronted with agrammatic and fluent aphasic speech. Epistemic variants of modal verbs that combine with an infinitive cannot be focalized by means of a negation: in (15) the negation affects the infinitive rather than the modal verb. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, vol. The additional files for this article can be found as follows: Demographic data of the Agrammatic and fluent aphasic speakers and the non-brain-damaged (NBD) control speakers. Radical construction grammar: Syntactic theory in typological perspective. They also differ from the agrammatic speakers (Fisher’s exact: p = 0.0171): the agrammatic speakers use the lexical instance of hebben more often than the grammatical instance, a pattern that is opposite to the one presented by the fluent aphasic speakers. The claim that grammatical items are discursively secondary, whereas lexical items are discursively primary, is supported by perception studies which show that grammatical items are paid less attention than lexical ones. The very frequent words are of course mainly grammatical words, and Firth had already suggested the separate term colligation for collocations involving these. The speech rate is normal, there is a more or less normal variety of grammatical variation, but some fluent aphasic speakers mix up sentence structures (paragrammatism). The origin of speech. This means that also this second distinction between closed- and open-class words cannot be co-extensive with the distinction between grammatical and lexical words (nobody would consider Latin praenomina grammatical). Notice that these authors blame verb inflection or arguments structure, typical properties of verbs, for causing these problems. The pattern of the agrammatic speakers is not different from normal (Fisher’s exact: p = 0.324). Both NBDs and fluent aphasic speakers use grammatical instances more often than lexical ones, but for the fluent aphasic speakers the discrepancy is larger than for the NBDs (Fisher’s exact; p = 0.0125). 99–117. It was King that has always hated chasing a stick. Syntactic and semantic processes in aphasic deficits: The availability of prepositions. They are called word classes. Fluent aphasic speakers use a normal proportion of finite verbs, but for these finite verbs, the variability is lower and the frequency is higher than normal and, interestingly, also than for their nonfinite verbs (Bastiaanse 2013). Fluency and coherence 2. ), Modals in the languages of Europe: A reference work, 11–69. <<847390AA1292C34DA635057F69CA3543>]>> 0000005577 00000 n A typical example of agrammatic speech is the following (questions of the interviewer between […]): Fluent aphasic speech is characterized by word finding difficulties that may result in pauses, empty speech and/or the use of semantically related and/or phonologically related words (paraphasias) and non-words (neologisms). As mentioned in the introduction, we assume that there are two keys to understanding the grammar-lexicon contrast: 1) contrasts between grammatical and lexical words, which constitute the area where grammar and the lexicon differ least and can be most directly compared; 2) the contrast between agrammatic and fluent aphasic speech, … However, Bastiaanse & Jonkers (1998), for Dutch, and Abuom & Bastiaanse (2012), for English and Swahili, took individual variability into account, and showed that there is a kind of competition between verb inflection (grammatical) and the diversity of full verbs (lexical). More generally, the claim that grammatical items are discursively secondary provides a motivation for the tendency for grammatical items to be phonetically and phonologically reduced: since grammatical items are less crucial for communicative purposes, they are allocated less articulatory resources in language production with the effect that they receive less stress and less articulatory accuracy. DOI: http://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.436, Boye, Kasper, and Roelien Bastiaanse. lexical… expresses the main point), for instance in a discussion of things King has always hated. The fluent aphasic speakers, however, fall short on the usage of lexical instances of hebben (Fisher’s exact: p = 0.0467). 1983. Grammatical words include articles, pronouns, and conjunctions. In particular, the difference between nouns and verbs has frequently been stressed in aphasiological studies. Christensen, Marie H., Line B. Kristensen, Nicoline M. Vinther & Kasper Boye. In the case of hebben, the distinction between a grammatical instance and a lexical one is co-extensive with a semantic distinction: grammatical hebben is part of a perfect construction with a meaning that can be roughly paraphrased as: anterior with relevance to reference time (cf. The point we would like to make here is that closed class word classes cannot be treated as being homogeneous. On one side but I think it’s nice, my idea too. 18–28. № 14.641.31.0004. Brain and Language 19. Roelien Bastiaanse’s research is partly sponsored by the Сenter for Language and Brain NRU Higher School of Economics, RF Government grant, ag. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Lexical meaning is dominant in content words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in function words, but in neither is grammatical meaning absent. 1 = first person, 2 = second person, 3 = third person, CONJ = conjunction, DEF = definite, INDF = indefinite, INF = infinite, NBD = non-brain-damaged, NEG = negation, PL = plural, PTCP = participle, POSS = possessive, REFL = reflexive, SG = singular. 249–258. The distinction between grammatical and lexical words is standardly dealt with in terms of a semantic distinction between function and content words or in terms of distributional distinctions between closed and open classes. Among the lexical items in this sentence are the verbs hate and chase. Traugott, Elizabeth C. 1997. This second distinction is based on a clear empirical difference between word classes that are limited and reluctant to accept new members and word classes that are unlimited – or at least very large – and readily accept new members. 0000000016 00000 n They're also all nouns, which is one type of lexical word. 0000003624 00000 n 376–389. 0000007359 00000 n Verb instances classified as lexical based on the functional theory are more severely affected in fluent aphasic speech than verb instances classified as lexical, when compared to the speech of non-brain-damaged speakers. This theory does not depend on any specific claim about when and how to distinguish items. Functional, or grammatical, words are the ones that it's hard to define their meaning, but they have some grammatical function in the sentence. 3, no. The argument is based on a recent functional and usage-based theory of the grammar-lexicon distinction (Boye & Harder 2012) and on the assumption that aphasic speech data represent the ideal testing ground for theories and claims about this contrast. 2018;3(1):29. Segalowitz & Lane 2000; Harley 2006: 118). startxref We never say it is not possible or it does not work. Agrammatic speakers have a slow speech rate, and produce grammatically simple sentences in which mainly lexical words are used whereas grammatical words and morphemes are omitted or substituted (Goodglass & Kaplan 1972). 14–32. We discuss possible explanations of the results and show that a distinction between grammatical and lexical is well in line with earlier aphasiological and psycholinguistic studies. The claim that grammatical items are dependent on host items provides a motivation for empirically-based speech-production models such as those of Garrett (1975) and Levelt (1989). Luzzatti, Claudio, Rossella Raggi, Giusy Zonca, Caterina Pistarini, Antonella Contardi & Gian-Domenico Pinna. Our results support the functional theory tested. While this may be so, a distinction between less and more semantically rich words cannot, arguably, be co-extensive with a distinction between grammatical and lexical words, as virtually the same content (or function) may in some cases be expressed both grammatically and lexically. Hockett, Charles F. 1960. For these items, however, the second criterion is not conclusive. Contrasting cases of Italian agrammatic aphasia without comprehension disorder. … Instead, the fluent aphasic speakers are expected to overuse grammatical verbs. e0186685. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. Verb-noun double dissociation in aphasic impairments: The role of frequency and imageability. 2002) or no difference (Zingeser & Berndt 1990). Grammatical class effects in relation to normal and aphasic sentence processing. 2016. H�lT�n�0��+�(C�z^ۢE_@���Ɂ�([�C$���%E%rR�Wfvf������M����t��@��P7���r�v��z��K �~{\q�*V��j�.Z�D��Ji(b���q�"�N�8�P�xx.\[7����m�&��ۚTԜoT�RX�t֠&�Fk���z��fk��G���MZ��1+ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2014.886322, Boye, Kasper. 1991. 11th Biennenial Rice University Linguistics Symposium. The best-described non-fluent type is Broca’s aphasia or agrammatism. 1998. In the vast majority of cases, word classifications based on the diagnostic criteria outlined above are in line with established ideas of what counts as grammatical words and what counts as lexical ones. Journal of Neurolinguistics 24. Trousdale 2014: 559 for an example), in the latter case because, as mentioned, Chomskyan theories focus on the combination aspect of grammar. The language myth: Why language is not an instinct. Oxford: Blackwell. je, me) and lexical pronouns (e.g. 2012. Mardale, Alexandru. grammatical or lexical exceptions or grammatical conditioning. However, in clinical practice, it is not always easy to make this distinction. Levelt, Willem J. M. 1989. 440–479. Michel Lange et al. DOI: http://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.436. In Kasper Boye & Elisabeth Engberg-Pedersen (eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Notice that in Dutch the full verb is at the end of the sentences when combined with an auxiliary or modal verb. Graetz, Patty, Ria De Bleser & Klaus Willems. 70–75. Retrieval of nouns and verbs in agrammatism and anomia. The dependency of grammatical items provides a motivation for this later retrieval and encoding: since grammatical items depend on a host and only make sense when combined with a host, it is natural to expect that lexical hosts are planned earlier than the grammatical items. 3Notice that it is not entirely clear what Friederici (1982) means by “syntactic function”: the scarce examples she gives are what we call “subcategorized”. It follows that by lexical meaning we designate the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions, while by grammatical meaning we designate the meaning proper to sets of word-forms common to all words of a certain class. More importantly, the distinction between function and content words is too vague to license precise criteria for determining whether a word belongs to one class or the other. H�lTM��0��W�#H���G̵�����C����:N�.�#�$Ϳ�JV�"�̼�yc7�V��(�B�yC ���Fn��O���ԟsg�R��;�N��j7�F �氩I!����P�%a*�IIi��ď?! YN0��]���/JO�+�)Ai'��h��$������)8O�O;V����)�9[7�M"Ҍ%��IKJ��W�.��0�F���tA2�+Җ�1�+�X�m��Xa�G�G�^*9N�%J"y�SJ��:�^�@��y��ņt#��O����p�@w�lZ"&�VȂsr6i��\�R��l%jW� One key is aphasiology – in particular, the contrast between agrammatic and fluent aphasic speech, which represents the clearest empirical counterpart of the theoretical distinction (see below). This theory provides a theoretical anchor for the distinction between grammatical and lexical words. The former are words that do not exist in one language because of the parameters set by the morphological, phonological and other rules set by a particular language. 164–203. It only presupposes that items can be distinguished. 2016. The distinction between processing of grammatical and lexical words can also be made within word classes. Frontiers in Psychology 6. Part of the disagreement is centered on the problem of capturing at the same time both the combination aspect and the item aspect of grammar. The Dutch verb forms under scrutiny are hebben: ‘have’ and the modal verb forms kunnen: ‘can’, zullen: ‘should’, mogen; ‘may’/‘be allowed’, willen; ‘want’, moeten: ‘must’/‘ought to’ and hoeven ‘need’.1 For each of these verb forms we distinguished two instances on distributional grounds: one instance which does not combine with another verb (cf. 2004. 1989. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics 3, no. Cognitive Linguistics 7. Based on these assumptions, we first point out problems in existing studies of contrasts between grammatical and lexical words. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198299554.001.0001, Dąbrowska, Ewa. For agrammatic speakers the pattern is opposite of that found for NBDs and fluent aphasic speakers: they produce lexical instances of hebben and modal verb forms more often than grammatical instances (Fisher’s exact; p = 0.0057). 0000008791 00000 n Still other studies align with the present one in emphasizing the need for the grammar-lexicon distinction within open word classes. 0000000776 00000 n In traditional grammar the term parts of speech is used. This nicely illustrates the differences between the two aphasic groups. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1242–1266. Modals in the Germanic languages. You can hear that with the talking of course. In Thomas Hoffmann & Graeme Trousdale (eds. In English the distinction is even clearer. Bennis & Bastiaanse (in press) analysed spontaneous speech of agrammatic, fluent aphasic speakers and non-brain-damaged speakers and reported that the agrammatic speakers produce relatively many prepositions with a semantic functions, whereas they hardly use prepositions with a grammatical function. PLoS ONE 12(11). By this criterion, for instance, one Danish determiner, the indefinite article en/et comes out as grammatical (cf. English have in we have lived here for 20 years); lexical hebben expresses possession (cf. Aphasiology 24. words that have less charge of meaning and are used to connect ideas. 2013). However, on some analyses at least, this is also a property of raising verbs, although these are in other respects qualified for being considered full verbs. One might argue then that agrammatic speakers have problems expressing anterior with relevance to reference time (see Bastiaanse 2013), while fluent aphasic speakers have problems expressing possession. Borsley, Robert D. 1996. In contrast to King, a stick and hated (the latter of which are lexical due to, respectively, the lexical constituents stick and hate), the article a and the auxiliary have cannot be focalized by means of cleft constructions or focus particles such as indeed. A more specific objection could be that at least in the case of Dutch modal verbs, the distributional distinction we make is nonsensical as there is no neat semantic reflection of it: only when the modal verbs combine with another verb, can they have epistemic modal meaning, but non-epistemic meanings are found both in modal verbs that combine and modal verbs that do not combine with another verb. Thus, just as grammatical items cannot (outside metalinguistic contexts in which conventions are overridden) be used to convey the primary point of a message, they cannot stand alone. 1991). English words: A linguistic introduction. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.436.s1, Individual data of functional and lexical use of hebben ‘have’ and the modal verbs for the agrammatic and fluent aphasic speakers and the non-brain-damaged control (NBD) speakers. 1, 2018, p. 29. 65–97. Such a semantic distinction would cut across the distributional distinction we made: epistemic modal verbs are only a subset of modal verbs combining with another verb, and non-epistemic modal verbs comprise both modal verbs that combine with another verb, and modal verbs that do not combine with another verb. Grammatical range and accuracy Have you observed that the lexical response and grammatical … A general objection could be that distributional differences are not enough to distinguish between items. Theoretically, however, it is no less problematic than the former of the two distinctions. Moreover, it is not entirely clear to us how reliable the focus criterion is in the case of modals combining with another verb (for instance, does the fact that hoeven always co-occurs with a negation mean that hoeven is always focalized?). Lexical resource 4. Note that grammatical types tend to occur with higher frequencies than do lexical types, so that the type/token ratio of lexical words is considerably higher than that of grammatical words … Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics 27(4). The infants looked significantly longer during lexical-word than grammatical-word … As soon as one item has been isolated, this can be classified as grammatical or lexical based on the theoretically anchored diagnostic criteria. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Characteristics of Swahili-English bilingual agrammatic spontaneous speech and the consequences for understanding agrammatic aphasia. By the first criterion, also the modal verbs which combine with another verb (as in (13b)) are clearly grammatical: they do not stand alone, but require a co-occurring verb with respect to which they are discursively secondary. Traugott 1997: 191). In Figure 1, the data for the lexical and grammatical words have been collapsed. There is only limited space provided for each headline and the problem of fitting the best words may occur. (12a), (13a)), and one instance which does combine with another verb (cf. In English grammar and semantics, a content word is a word that conveys information in a text or speech act. Both the agrammatic and the fluent aphasic speakers use grammatical and lexical instances differently from how the NBDs use them. Two of the central features that distinguish human language from animal communication systems are a large inventory of symbolic units and a mechanism for combining these units into complex symbols (see Hockett 1960 on more “design features” of human language).
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